At the applied research level, we deal with the freezing and thawing of aqueous solutions. Freeze concentration and uncontrolled crystallization during thawing can damage cells or drug substances. We clarify which chemical processes take place during freezing and thawing and which phenomena lead to damage. These include vitrification, clathrate formation, the formation of a network of veins containing freeze-concentrated solution, crystallization during freezing and cold crystallization during thawing. These processes change the pH values of the solution or lead to the aggregation of proteins.
Ice formation in a KCl solution