COV&R-Bulletin No. 12 (March 1997)

Bibliography of Literature on the Mimetic Theory, vol. XII

1) Books concerning the entire work of René Girard

Assmann, Hugo (ed.). Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Nardin, Christian (ed.). Les pouvoirs de l'image. Lycée International des Pontonniers de Strasbourg, Séminaire 1994-1995. Strasbourg: lycée International de Strasbourg, 1996.

2) Articles concerning the entire work of René Girard

Assmann, Hugo. "Zum inneren Ablauf des Dialogs zwischen René Girard und den Befreiungstheologen." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 13-37. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Assmann, Hugo. "Das Denken René Girards weckt differenzierte Interessen." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 41-63. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Charcosset, Jean P. "Des choses cachées aux intelligents et aux sages: Renéé Girard et le sacrifice." In Foi et vie 95/4 (1996): 93-107.

De Santa Ana, Julio. "Sakralisierungen und Opfer im Tun der Menschen." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 65-93. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Dunnill, John. "Methodological Rivalries: Theology and Social Science in Girardian Interpretations of the New Testament." In Journal for the Study of the New Testament 62 (1996): 105-119.

Goorden, Constant. "Het Offer in de Religie en in de Joods-Christelijke Traditie volgens Renéé Girard." In Collationes 26/1 (1996): 79-108.

Hinkelhammert, Franz J. "Paradigmen und Metamorphosen des Opfers von Menschenleben." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 103-127. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Josgrillberg, Rui. "Opfermechanismus und der Tod Jesu." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: Renéé Girard im Gesprääch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 161-178. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Müünster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Kearney, Richard. "Myths and Scapegoats: The Case of Renéé Girard." In Theory, Culture and Society 12/4 (1995): 1-12.

Nardin, Christian. "Resume des thèses de René Girard." In Les pouvoirs de l'image, ed. Nardin, Christian, 37-58. Lycéée International des Pontonniers de Strasbourg, Sééminaire 1994-1995. Strasbourg: Lycée International de Strasbourg, 1996.

Nessan, Craig L. "Stilling the Violence Within and Without: Girard, Animal Aggression, and Atonement." In Glaube und Denken 9 (1996): 133-144.

Ong, Walter J. "Mimesis and the Following of Christ." In Religion and Literature 26 (Summer 1994): 73-77.

Sung, Jung Mo. "Die geschichtliche ""Verifizierbarkeit"" nicht sakrifizieller Theorien." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: Renéé Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. ÜÜbersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 221-228. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Vanheeswijck, Guido. "Zelfverruiming of loutering? Over de betekenis van gefragmenteerde subjectiviteit in het vroege werk van René Girard." In Bijdragen 57/3 (1996): 242-263.

3) Interviews/debates with René Girard

Girard, René. "Image et véritéé: Rencontre avec René Girard." In Les pouvoirs de l'image, ed. Nardin, Christian, 161-175. Lycée International des Pontonniers de Strasbourg, Sééminaire 1994-1995. Strasbourg: Lycée International de Strasbourg, 1996.

Girard, René. "Schlaglichter aus dem Dialog mit Befreiungstheologen." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 255-310. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Müünster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Girard, Renéé. "The Anthropology of the Cross: A Conversation with Renéé Girard." Interview by James G. Williams. In The Girard Reader, ed. Williams, James G., 262-288. New York: A Crossroad Herder Book, 1996.

4) Books with references to René Girard

Angehrn, Emil. Die Überwindung des Chaos: Zur Philosophie des Mythos. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1996.

Colpe, Carsten. Der ""Heilige Krieg"": Benennung und Wirklichkeit, Begründung und Widerstreit. Hanstein: Anton Hain, 1994.

Drexler, Josef. Die Illusion des Opfers: Eine wissenschaftlicher Überblick über die wichtigsten Opfertheorien ausgehend vom deleuzianischen Polyperspektivismusmodell.Münchener ethnologische Abhandlungen 12. München: Akademischer Verlag, 1993.

Regensburger, Dietmar. Masse, Macht und Gewalt bei Hannah Arendt. Ph. D. Diss., University of Innsbruck, 1996.

Reuter, Hans-Richard. Rechtsethik in theologischer Perspektive: Studien zur Grundlegung und Konkretion. Gütersloh: Kaiser, 1996.

5) Articles with references to René Girard

Alves, Rubem. "Eine Handvoll Thesen zu Begehren und Opfer." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 229-236. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Capps, Donald. "Sex in the Parish: Social-Scientific Explanations for Why It Occurs." In Journal of Pastoral Care 47 (Winter 1993): 350-361.

Gans, Eric. "Plato and the Birth of Conceptual Thought." In Anthropoetics: The Electronic Journal of Generative Anthropology 2/2 (January 1997): http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/anthropoetics/

Krondorfer, Björn. "Response to James G. Williams: Re-Mythologizing Scriptural Authority: On Reading 'Sacrifice and the Beginning of Kingship.'" In Semeia no. 67 (1994): 93-107.

Palaver, Wolfgang. "Das biblische Menschenbild und seine Konsequenzen füür die Politik." In: Ethica 4 (1996) 227-244.

Pixley, Jorge. "Fordert der wahre Gott blutige Opfer?" In Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gesprääch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 131-159. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Susin, Luiz Carlos. "Opferideologie und Christologie: Die Gewalt des Kreuzes." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gesprääch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 170-186. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Müünster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Van Oort, Richard. "Performative-Constitative Revisited: The Genetics of Austin's Theory of Speech Acts." In Anthropoetics: The Electronic Journal of Generative Anthropology2/2 (January 1997): http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/anthropoetics/

Wolf, Jean-Claude: "Ethik aus christlichen Quellen?" In Fundamente der Theologischen Ethik, ed. Holderegger, Adrian, 126-153. Studien zur theologischen Ethik 72. Freiburg/Schweiz: Universitätsverlag, 1996.

Wulf, Christoph. "Die Unhintergehbarkeit der Gewalt." In Das ""zivilisierte Tier"": Zur Historischen Anthropologie der Gewalt, ed. Wimmer, Michael, Wulf, Christoph and Dieckmann, Bernhard, 77-83. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1996.

6) Books applying the mimetic theory

Girard, Renéé. The Girard Reader. Edited by James G. Williams. New York: A Crossroad Herder Book, 1996.

Girard, René. Szekspir: Teatr zazdroci. Przeoya Barbara Mikoajewska (A Theater of Envy: William Shakespeare, Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo KR, 1996.

Girard, René. Resurrection from the Underground: Feodor Dostoevsky. Translated and Foreword by James G. Williams. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1997.

Girard, René. ""Wenn all das beginnt ..."" Ein Gespräch mit Michel Treguer. Übersetzt von Pascale Veldboer (""Quand ces choses commenceront ..."" Entretiens avec Michel Treguer, German). Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 5. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1997.

Kitzmüller, Erich. Gewalteskalation oder neues Teilen. Edited by Herwig Büüchele and Severin Renoldner. Beiträäge zur mimetischen Theorie 3. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Koelbl, Herlinde. Opfer: Ein Zyklus. Mit einem Essay von René Girard. Heidelberg: Edition Braus, 1996.

Schwager, Raymund. Erbsünde und Heilsdrama: Im Kontext von Evolution, Gentechnologie und Apokalyptik. Beiträge zur mimetischen Theorie 4. Münster: LIT Verlag; Thaur: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur, 1997.

7) Articles applying the mimetic theory

Alison, James. "AIDS als Ort der Offenbarung: Girard und eine neue Pastoraltheologie." In Götzenbilder und Opfer: Renéé Girard im Gesprääch mit der Befreiungstheologie. ÜÜbersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 237-251. Beiträäge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Münster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Alison, James. "El retorno de Abel : La teologíía como elaboracion de historias de vida." In AnááMnesis 5/2 (1995): 5-19.

Céésar, Ely Éser Barreto. "Barmherzigkeit und Opfer im Matthäus-Evangelium." In öötzenbilder und Opfer: René Girard im Gespräch mit der Befreiungstheologie. Übersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 201-211. Beiträäge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Müünster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Chilton, Bruce. "The Hungry Knife: Towards a Sense of Sacrifice." In Bible in Human Society: Essays in Honour of John Rogerson, ed. Carrol, R. and Daniel, M., 122-138. Journal for the study of the Old Testament: Supplement series 200. Sheffield : JSOT-Press, 1995.

Girard, Renéé. "Sacrifice in Levenson's Work." In Dialog 34 (Winter 1995): 61-62.

Girard, Renéé. "Zu den Photographien von Herlinde Koelbl." In Opfer: Ein Zyklus von Herlinde Koelbl. Heidelberg: Edition Braus, 1996, n. p.

Gorgulho, Gilberto. "Weisheit und mimetische Begierde." In Göötzenbilder und Opfer: Renéé Girard im Gesprääch mit der Befreiungstheologie. ÜÜbersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 187-199. Beiträäge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Müünster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Hamerton-Kelly, Robert G. "Biblical Interpretation, Mythology, and a Theory of Ethnic Violence." Scriptura 50/1 (1994): 23-39.

Harms, Klaus. "Wenn alle Gewalt endet: Die Bedeutung der Opfertheorie Renéé Girards füür die Theologie der Passion Jesu." In Lutherische Monatshefte 35/8 (1996): 35-37.

McBride, James. "Capital Punishment as the Unconstitutional Establishment of Religion: A Girardian Reading of the Death Penalty." In Journal of Church and State37 (Spring 1995): 263-287.

Mishler, William. """The Virgin Spring"" and ""The Seventh Seal"": A Girardian Reading." In Comparative Drama 30/1 (Spring 1996): 106-134.

Palaver, Wolfgang. "Carl Schmitt on Nomos and Space." In Telosno. 106 (Winter 1996): 105-127.

Palaver, Wolfgang. "Die Christliche Erlöösungslehre und ihre Antwort auf Gewalt und Krieg." In actio catholica 40/3 (1996): 31-42.

Santa Ana, Julio de. "ÜÜberlegungen zur opferideologischen Mimesis bei Träägern der modernen Gesellschaft." In Göötzenbilder und Opfer: Renéé Girard im Gesprääch mit der Befreiungstheologie. ÜÜbersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 95-101. Beiträäge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Müünster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Schwager, Raymund. "Sakralitäät und Totalitäät: Zur Problematik der Freiheit in der modernen Gesellschaft. In Ordnung und Freiheit: Ein interdisziplinääres Gesprääch, ed. Preglau, Max, Niedenzu, Heinz-Jüürgen and Melegy, Tamáás, 85-105. Verööffentlichungen der Universitäät 219. Innsbruck: Außßeninstitut der Universitäät, 1996.

Siegele-Wenschkewitz, Leonore. "Renéé Girards Süündenbock-Theorie als Anstoßß zur Entschlüüsselung von Süündenbock-Theologie." In Gott an den Räändern: Sozialgeschichtliche Perspektiven auf die Bibel. Willy Schrottroff zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. Bail, Ulrike und Jost, Renate, 152-164. Güütersloh: Kaiser, 1996.

Soares, Sebastiãão Armando Gameleira. "Umgang mit der Bibel im Afroindiolateinischen Amerika und die Anregungen Renéé Girards." In Göötzenbilder und Opfer: Renéé Girard im Gesprääch mit der Befreiungstheologie. ÜÜbersetzt von Horst Goldstein, ed. Assmann, Hugo, 213-219. Beiträäge zur mimetischen Theorie 2. Thaur/Austria: Druck- und Verlagshaus Thaur; Müünster/Germany: LIT Verlag, 1996.

Abstracts of the COV&R -Conference in New Orleans, November 22 -23, 1996

Paul B. Duff (The George Washington University), "Whoever Is Not With Me Is Against Me": Witchcraft Accusations and the Revelation of John

Although there can be little doubt that the narrative world which the Book of Revelationdepicts is one in which the fledgling Christian church is cruelly abused by the powerful and evil Roman Empire, nevertheless, historical evidence does not support such a scenario of persecution. Consequently, academic discussions of the last ten years or so have focused on the question of whether or not any real crisis underlies Revelation. It strikes me that such discussions are unproductive, at best. It is hard to imagine that the Book of Revelation arose in an atmosphere devoid of conflict. The text demands otherwise. We should not be asking if there was a crisis behind the Book of Revelationbut rather, what kindof crisis spawned this work? Most scholarship has paid too little attention to the complexities of the social situation evidenced by the text. The fact that there are witchcraft accusations within the text (9:21;18:23; 22:8; 22:9) suggests the possibility that a mimetic crisis lies behind the Apocalypse.

The current study focuses on the witchcraft accusations found within the work. It concludes that the seer, while upholding the traditional Jewish view that sorcerers exist outside he community, subtly suggests that one of the insiders, his rival "Jezebel," looks an awful lot like an outsider. It is this confusion between insider and outsider that John exploits to malign his rival.

Consequently, John's polemic against Greco-Roman culture should not be taken at face value. Certainly, John has no love of pagan culture. But his strategy throughout the Apocalypse is not primarily aimed at condemning pagan culture in general or Rome specifically. Rather, he uses the apocalyptic tradition of the "evil empire" to convince the uncommitted majority in the churches that his rival is in league with the forces of evil which control the dominant, external culture.

Diana Culbertson (Kent State University), Reply to Paul Duff

The textual significance of "Jezebel" lies primarily in her character as a signifier for a larger religious conflict, namely the prophet vs. the pseudo prophet--or God's word vs. the rejection of God's word. Mimetic theory is a way into this problematic narrative, but the mimetic rivalry in the text goes far beyond domestic factionalism. Sorcerers dis-simulate because they secretly desire the authority that belongs only to God. The wicked of the earth, including the great city Babylon, are rivals for the power, wealth, and authority of the One who sits on the throne, the One who does not imitate, but who "makes all things new." The rivals of the Lamb will ultimately be defeated, but the faithful are not to engage in expulsive violence. John urges his audience to endure and promises only eschatological victory: an inclusive differentiated gathering of all races, tribes, and nations. John is not caught in the rivalry he denounces. He is not the mimetic rival of Jezebel. He sees her mimetic desire, labels it, and warns of the human catastrophes consequent upon the claim to a sovereignty that belongs only to God.

James G. Williams (Syracuse University), Reply to Paul Duff

1. Social and historical context

Although I find Paul Duff's study to be an interesting and strong thesis about factionalism and the attempt to turn a group of insiders, "Jezebel" and her followers, into outsiders through associating them with Greco-Roman paganism, I am troubled by the attempt to sever the book from specific persecutions and other particular problems of the social and historical context.

2. Apocalyptic and violence according to the mimetic theory

The NT Gospels have furthered the apocalyptic process of intensification of crisis, which from the apocalyptic viewpoint seems to call for judgment by means of good violence suppressing bad violence; yet the Gospels also call this process into question.

A. Jesus' ministry, death, and resurrection are placed, at least in great part, within the context of apocalyptic language and share a sense of crisis.

B. The exposure of the scapegoat mechanism in the Passion of Christ calls all forms of sacrifice of victims into question. Its inner logic undermines apocalyptic, in effect, in that the Passion witnesses to a God of love whose will could not be imposed through violence.

C. Yet the subverting of cultural scapegoat mechanism means that cultural order--rituals, rules, distinctions, etc.--are threatened. Christianity's impact could be viewed as undermining old sacrificial orders, while at the same time new forms of order in keeping with the Gospel ethos have not succeeded in emerging. (And must this ethos be radically eschatological?) In this light, the Revelation of John could be read as an expression of the Gospel vision of history which sees the dissolution of all forms of cultural order and all kingdoms and cultures due to the disclosure of the scapegoat mechanism (Rev. 1:7).

3. Concluding questions

Does the seer understand that the God of the Lamb, of the one who is pierced, does not impose violence? Is the real secret of the Apocalypse that the human desire leading to violence is subverted? Does the seer not only discern the apocalypse, but that it is what humans do to themselves? Is the final repayment according to everyone's work (Rev. 22:12) a mythological pronouncement stemming from an intuition of our true situation which is already demythologized in the visions? Or does John misunderstand judgment, and see it as Christ's violent division of the good from the evil?

Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan (Graduate Theological Union), What's Violence Got to Do With It?: Inflamers, and the Lizzie Borden's of Ancient Israel: Women Who Slay and/or Cause Wrongful Deaths

The biblical text has few stories about women. None engage mothers and daughters in meaningful, relational dialogue. Most often, the critical functions of biblical women concern their male offspring and securing land, position, or promise fulfillment. Some women face humiliation or death. An eminent exception to this biblical violence is the erotic love story of Song of Songs, where the woman speaks for herself, is not the temptress; the man is not the scapegoat. In addition, some biblical stories portray women who epitomize female engineered violence amid texts that mix power, love, religion, land, sex, and greed.

My paper explores women who instigate and/or commit murder amid mimetic desire, from ethical, womanist, psycho-social, theological, and legal perspectives. After qualifying the biblical co-conspirators (Deborah-Jael, Jezebel-Athaliah; Judith-and her maid; Herodias-Salome) and setting out their socio-historical and theological locus, I dialogically explore: (1) their sources of strength and power, and the impact of their sexuality; (2) the dynamics between the glorification of sanctioned violence, the cost of violence inspired by idolatry, mimetic activity and forms of rejection; and (3) views recent murders by women [e.g., Lizzie Borden, Susan Smith], in comparison with biblical women in the perspective of contemporary criminal courts.

In the Deborah-Jael story, the generative mechanism favors Yahweh. The Jezebel-Athaliah story results in much violence and numerous scapegoats. Both Judith's mimetic crises and Herodias-Salome's desires result in beheadings, amid complex sexual issues. All these stories relate violence and religion, a quest, many desires, and at least one man's death. The biblical text praises those on Yahweh's side and jettisons those against Yahweh. Sometimes the sacrifice interrupts the cycle of violence, but often, it protects the status quo and rechannels the violence.

Society tends to be surprised that women do violence, given the way we have merged certain personal qualities disproportionately into gender role identity. Women do kill: in the name of God, desire, passion, revenge, in self defense. Violence is no respecter of gender, class, race, time, or beauty. How dangerous it is to take lightly biblical texts dubbed the Word of God that requires humans to do justice, love kindness, and walk humbly with your God.

Julie Shinnick (Texas University), Reply to Kirk-Duggan

Cheryl has surveyed stories of nine violent women, seven from Biblical texts and two from modern times, raising interesting questions concerning mimesis and gender.

Where women (traditional objects of mimetic desire) are protagonists, sexuality is emphasized. Recalling Girard's mention of the accusation during her trial that Marie Antoinette had committed incest with her son, I find it interesting that two of these women bear the taint of incest as victims, yet become perpetrators of violence. Is mimetic vengeance at work here?

Girard's concept of the progressive revelation of the scapegoat mechanism is evidenced in these narratives, particularly in the way that the Israelites do not seem to be enormously different from their neighbors with whom they contend for the possession of the land. Were these particular Old Testament texts written from the sole perspective of the winners of a conflict? And if not, where in these texts do we hear the spirit of truth?

Two particular passages stand out. Jezebel's last words--"Had Zimri peace who murdered his master?"--give us a momentary glimpse of Jezebel and her murderer, Jehu as doubles. And at the close of the Deborah narrative, Sisera's mother, looking out of a window, cries in anguish, "Why is his chariot so long in coming? Why tarry the wheels of his chariots?" In these lines we can see her as a double of Deborah, the "mother" of the Israelites, and we can glimpse the truth about the scapegoat mechanism in the commonality of human mourning for the consequences of its effects.

William Mishler (University of Minnesota), The Tragic Instability of the Akedah (Binding of Isaac) in Ibsen's Brand

Of all his works, Henrik Ibsen's verse drama Brand (1865) is the one most directly concerned with the interplay among the Bible, Christianity, and secular culture; that is, it is the work in which he places the mechanism of mimetic violence most immediately in dialog with Biblical Christianity. Provoked by Germany's 1864 attack on Denmark and Norway's failure to come to Denmark's defense, Ibsen explores in Brand the inherent violence of human culture in terms similar to Renéé Girard's. He constructs his drama with an eye to revealing that violence on both the interpersonal and social level is inevitably generated by mimetic rivalry. The protagonist Brand is a Christian minister who sees it as his mission to spur everyone he encounters to feats of heroic self-sacrifice. These debates, with Hegelian prestige as their prize, unfold with frequent reference to both the Old and New Testament. More specifically, Brand makes reference interchangeably both to Jesus' substitutionary death and to the Akedah, Abraham's binding of his son Isaac preparatory to sacrificing him.

Whereas Renéé Girard sees the Akedah and the Crucifixion as texts which progressively reveal the mechanism of mimetic violence at work in human culture, Ibsen, reading not as a theologian but as an analyst of his contemporary culture, suggests that to the popular mind, at least, the death of Jesus stands as a kind of reversal of the Abraham/Isaac example. In this reading, God the Father requires the death of Jesus as substitutionary sacrifice for the sins of humans. Viewed in this light, the Akedah and the Crucifixion form a kind of tragic loop in Western culture, forever drawing it back toward scapegoating and sacrifice in periods of social stress. "Was God humane to Jesus Christ?" Brand cries as he prepares to sacrifice his own son. It is also, of course, with variants of this kind of sacrificial logic that Christian countries inevitably send their sons off to war--as Ibsen well understood as he examined his own subjective reaction to Germany's attack.

In my reading, then, the work of Renéé Girard serves not only as the hermeneutic of choice for Brand, it also helps to focus its underlying question in the sharpest of terms.

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